Logistics & Load Planning

Logistics is the art of getting the right things to the right place at the right time. In a world without trucks and highways, this becomes a complex problem involving animal endurance, road conditions, weather, and careful weight management. Poor logistics wastes animal lives, breaks equipment, and leaves communities without essential supplies.

This article covers the practical knowledge needed to plan and execute cargo movements by cart, wagon, and pack animal.

Weight Calculation & Measurement

Common Material Weights

You can’t manage loads without knowing what things weigh. Memorize these reference values:

Material	Weight per unit
Water	1 kg per liter
Green (wet) wood	800-1000 kg/m³
Seasoned hardwood	600-800 kg/m³
Seasoned softwood	400-500 kg/m³
Stone/gravel	1400-1800 kg/m³
Sand (dry)	1500-1700 kg/m³
Grain (wheat, corn)	~750 kg/m³
Hay (loose)	60-80 kg/m³
Hay (compressed bale)	150-200 kg/bale
Iron/steel	7800 kg/m³
Clay bricks	1800-2000 kg/m³
Potatoes/root vegetables	~700 kg/m³

Practical shortcuts:

• A 20-liter bucket of water weighs 20 kg
• A 20-liter bucket of grain weighs about 15 kg
• A 20-liter bucket of gravel weighs about 30 kg
• A log 2 m long × 25 cm diameter weighs about 40-60 kg (green softwood)

Improvised Weighing

Without a commercial scale:

• Balance beam: A plank balanced on a fulcrum. Known weights on one side, unknown load on the other. Use water containers as reference weights (20 liters = 20 kg).
• Spring scale: A salvaged luggage scale or fish scale handles up to 50 kg. Use multiple measurements for larger loads.
• Lever calculation: If you can lift one end of a loaded cart 30 cm off the ground, the shaft weight equals the force you applied. This tells you if the load is balanced correctly.

Load Distribution

Cart & Wagon Loading

Two-wheel cart rules:

1. Center the load directly over the axle or slightly forward
2. The animal should feel about 5-10% of the total load weight through the shafts (for a 400 kg load, that’s 20-40 kg on the animal’s back)
3. Heavy items low, light items high
4. Nothing should protrude past the sides where it can snag on obstacles

Four-wheel wagon rules:

1. Distribute weight evenly between front and rear axles, or slightly more toward the rear
2. Center the load side-to-side — even a 20 kg imbalance causes the wagon to track crooked and wears one wheel faster
3. On the wagon bed, heaviest items against the headboard (front), lighter toward the tail
4. Leave the tailgate area accessible for items needed during the day

Mixed Cargo Planning

When carrying different types of cargo:

• Heavy + fragile: Heavy items on the bottom as a stable base. Fragile items on top, padded with hay or cloth.
• Liquid + dry: Liquids go low (leaks drain down, not onto other cargo). Seal containers and assume they will leak.
• Food + non-food: Separate with a tarp or barrier. Fuel, chemicals, and animal feed contaminate food.
• Load order matters: Items needed first at the destination go on last (top/tail). Items needed last go on first (bottom/front).

Securing Methods

Unsecured loads shift. Shifted loads break, fall off, unbalance the vehicle, and injure animals.

Essential techniques:

• Roping: Throw a rope over the load, loop under the bed, and tie off. Minimum two ropes per load — one at front, one at rear.
• Chocking: Wedge blocks of wood between items and the wagon sides to prevent sliding.
• Dunnage: Lumber, poles, or scrap pieces placed between cargo layers to create separation and friction.
• Lashing: Individual items tied to the wagon bed. Each barrel, crate, or bundle should be independently secured.
• Net or tarp: A cargo net or tied-down tarp prevents small items from bouncing out.

Convoy Planning

Convoy Organization

Multiple vehicles traveling together need organization:

Order of march:

1. Scout/lead rider: checks the route ahead, identifies problems before the convoy arrives
2. Fastest/lightest vehicles first: if the lead vehicle gets stuck, it’s easier to clear a light cart than a heavy wagon
3. Heaviest vehicles in the middle: protected from both ends, on the most-traveled (best-compacted) part of the track
4. Maintenance wagon last: carries spare parts, tools, and extra feed. Picks up anything dropped.

Spacing: 50-100 m between vehicles on roads. This prevents dust from blinding following drivers and gives room to stop if the vehicle ahead has trouble.

Communication: Establish simple signals — a whistle for stop, two whistles for proceed, waving for trouble. The lead vehicle sets the pace.

Rest Stops & Staging Areas

Rest intervals:

• Horses: 10-minute rest every 90 minutes of travel. Full 1-hour rest at midday with feed and water.
• Oxen: 15-minute rest every 60 minutes. They overheat faster than horses.
• Human porters: 10 minutes per hour of walking under load.

Staging area requirements:

• Water source (river, spring, well) accessible by all animals
• Grazing or space to feed carried hay
• Flat ground for parking vehicles and unhitching
• Shelter from wind if overnight
• Firewood for cooking (if overnight)

Pre-position supplies: On regular routes, cache water, feed, and firewood at staging points. This lets you carry less on each trip, increasing payload capacity.

Timing & Daily Schedule

Realistic daily distances:

Mode	Good road	Fair track	Poor trail
Horse cart	25-35 km	15-25 km	8-15 km
Ox cart	15-20 km	10-15 km	5-10 km
Pack mule	20-30 km	15-25 km	10-20 km
Human porter	20-25 km	12-18 km	8-12 km

Daily schedule (example for a horse-drawn convoy):

• 05:00 — Wake, feed and water animals
• 06:00 — Hitch up, load, depart
• 07:30 — Short rest (10 min)
• 09:00 — Short rest (10 min)
• 10:30 — Short rest (10 min)
• 12:00 — Long rest (1 hour): unhitch, water, feed, eat lunch
• 13:00 — Resume
• 14:30 — Short rest
• 16:00 — Short rest
• 17:00 — Arrive at camp or destination. Unhitch, water, feed, inspect animals, make repairs.

This gives about 9 hours of travel with 11 km at walking pace = about 30-33 km on a good road.

Animal Feed & Water Logistics

Feed Requirements on the Move

A working horse or mule needs about 5 kg of grain and 7-8 kg of hay per day. This creates a logistics problem: the animals eat their own payload.

A horse carrying 60 kg of grain as cargo consumes its own load in 12 days. This limits one-way range to about 6 days (you need the other half for the return trip) — roughly 150-200 km with no resupply.

Solutions:

• Forage along the route: In seasons with good grass, animals can graze 2-3 hours per day and reduce carried feed by half. Plan routes through pasture-rich areas.
• Pre-position feed caches: Stash grain and hay at regular intervals on frequently used routes.
• Mixed grass and grain: Replace half the grain with grazing time. Slower travel but extends range.
• Oxen advantage: Oxen work on grass alone. No grain needed. They’re slower but have essentially unlimited range if grass is available.

Water Sources & Planning

A working horse drinks 30-50 liters per day. You cannot carry enough water for a team of animals — you must plan around water sources.

• Map every stream, spring, well, and pond along the route
• Maximum distance between water: 15-20 km in moderate weather, 10 km in hot weather
• In dry regions, water determines the route — you go where the water is
• Carry at least 20 liters of emergency water for each animal. This covers 4-6 hours if the expected water source is dry.

Route Optimization

Terrain Assessment

Before committing a loaded convoy to a route, assess:

• Maximum grade: Loaded carts can handle about 8-10% sustained grade. Above that, you need to double-team (two animal teams per cart) or reduce loads. Pack animals handle 15-20% grades.
• Bridge capacity: Check every bridge on the route. A bridge that holds a person may collapse under a loaded wagon. Know the bridge’s load limit before you arrive.
• Road surface: Mud, sand, and rock each demand different strategies. Mud requires wider wheels or lighter loads. Sand requires wide tires and early morning travel when the surface is damp and firm. Rock beats up wheels and hooves.
• Width restrictions: A narrow trail that barely fits a cart is a trap if you meet oncoming traffic. Know where passing places exist.

Seasonal Route Selection

Dry season routes:

• River fords become passable
• Low-lying roads that flood in wet season are accessible
• Dust and heat are the main problems
• Travel early and late in the day, rest during the hottest hours

Wet season routes:

• Avoid bottomlands and clay soils — they become impassable mud
• Use ridgeline routes (drier, better drained)
• Gravel roads maintain traction; dirt roads fail
• Allow 30-50% more travel time for reduced speed

Winter routes:

• Frozen ground can support heavier loads than summer roads
• Ice crossings over rivers and lakes must be tested (10 cm of clear ice supports a person, 20 cm supports a horse, 30 cm supports a loaded wagon)
• Snow depth above 30 cm stops wheeled vehicles. Switch to sleds.
• Shorter days reduce travel hours