Printing
Why This Matters
A single handwritten copy of a medical manual takes days to produce. If that copy burns, the knowledge is gone. Printing changes the equation entirely: one day of typesetting produces a plate that can stamp out hundreds of identical copies. Ten copies stored in ten different locations means the knowledge survives fire, flood, theft, and war. Printing is how humanity stopped forgetting. Before Gutenberg’s press in 1440, Europe had perhaps 30,000 books. Fifty years later, there were over 10 million. That explosion of knowledge made the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution, and everything that followed possible. Your community needs this technology for the same reason.
What You Need
For woodblock printing:
- Flat, smooth wood blocks (hardwood preferred: oak, maple, cherry, or fruitwood) — 2-3 cm thick, surface planed or sanded smooth
- Sharp carving tools: knife, chisel, gouge (V-gouge and U-gouge if available)
- Printing ink (see section below)
- Ink applicator: leather pad (dabber), cloth pad, or soft roller
- Paper (see Paper Making)
- Flat, firm surface for printing (table, stone slab)
For movable type:
- Metal for casting: lead, tin, or a lead-tin alloy (type metal: 80% lead, 15% antimony, 5% tin is ideal, but pure lead or lead-tin works)
- Crucible and heat source for melting metal (charcoal forge or similar)
- Type mold: carved hardwood or metal (described below)
- File and fine abrasive stone for finishing
- Type case: a flat box with compartments for storing individual letters
For a screw press:
- A large wooden screw (or a salvaged metal screw/bolt at least 2 cm diameter)
- Heavy timber frame: two upright posts and a crossbeam
- A flat platen (pressing surface): hardwood board or stone slab, at least 30 x 40 cm
- A flat bed (base): same dimensions, perfectly level
- Metal hardware: bolts, brackets, or wooden pegs for frame assembly
For printing ink:
- Linseed oil (pressed from flax seeds) — or walnut oil, or any drying oil
- Carbon black (lampblack/soot — same as writing ink but much more concentrated)
- Flat stone or glass slab for mixing
Tools:
- Saw, chisel, mallet for woodworking
- Pliers, tongs for metalwork
- Mixing tools: palette knife, flat blade, smooth stick
Understanding Printing
Printing works by transferring ink from a raised surface to paper under pressure. The concept is ancient and simple:
RAISED SURFACE (letters/images carved or cast in relief)
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INK APPLIED (rolled or dabbed onto raised surfaces only)
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PAPER PLACED ON TOP
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PRESSURE APPLIED (by hand, press, or weight)
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INK TRANSFERS to paper — a mirror image of the raised surface
Every printing method in this article follows this sequence. The differences are in how you create the raised surface and how you apply pressure.
Warning
All text must be carved or set in MIRROR IMAGE (reversed left-to-right). When ink transfers to paper, the mirror image becomes readable. This is the single most common mistake beginners make. Always check your block or type setup with a mirror, or press a test print, before committing to a full run.
Making Printing Ink
Printing ink is NOT the same as writing ink. Writing ink is thin and watery — it would smear and bleed under printing pressure. Printing ink is thick, sticky, and oil-based. It clings to raised surfaces and transfers cleanly under pressure.
Linseed Oil Ink
Step 1 — Cook the linseed oil. Pour raw linseed oil into a metal pot (about 250 ml to start). Heat over a low fire, stirring occasionally. You want to thicken it by driving off volatile compounds. Heat for 2-4 hours at a gentle simmer — not a full boil. The oil should thicken from water-like consistency to honey-like consistency. This is called “stand oil” or “boiled oil.”
Warning
Linseed oil is flammable. Heat it slowly over low coals, never over an open flame. Keep it below its smoke point. If it begins to smoke heavily, remove from heat immediately. Have a lid ready to smother the pot if it ignites — NEVER use water on an oil fire.
Step 2 — Prepare the soot. Collect fine lampblack soot as described in Writing & Record Keeping. For printing ink, you need a large quantity — at least 3-4 tablespoons per cup of cooked oil. The more soot, the blacker and more opaque the print.
Step 3 — Mix ink. On a flat stone or glass slab, place a mound of soot. Add cooked linseed oil a little at a time. Work the mixture with a palette knife or flat blade, grinding and folding repeatedly for 10-15 minutes. You want every soot particle coated in oil with no dry clumps and no excess oil pooling.
The finished ink should be:
- Thick and sticky — it should hold its shape when mounded
- Tacky — it should pull with slight resistance when you lift a knife from it
- Uniformly black with no gray streaks or dry spots
Step 4 — Test. Roll a small amount onto a smooth surface with a roller or dabber. It should coat evenly without lumps or bare patches. Press paper against it — the transfer should be clean, black, and sharp-edged.
Storage: Printing ink stores well for weeks in a sealed container. If it thickens too much, add a few drops of raw (uncooked) linseed oil and re-mix.
Emergency Ink (Without Linseed Oil)
If you cannot obtain linseed oil, you can make a crude printing ink from:
- Thick pine pitch or resin (melted and strained) mixed with soot
- Rendered animal fat (tallow) mixed with soot — less durable, smears more easily
These substitutes work but produce inferior results. Prioritize growing flax for linseed oil if you plan sustained printing operations.
Method 1: Woodblock Printing
Woodblock printing is the simplest printing method and was used in China from the 7th century onward. A full page of text or an image is carved into a single block of wood. The raised (uncarved) portions print; the carved-away portions remain white.
Preparing the Block
Step 1 — Select a block of hardwood. The end grain (cut across the tree trunk, showing rings) produces the finest detail but is harder to carve. The side grain (cut along the length) is easier to work but less precise. For text, side grain is adequate. The block must be flat, smooth, and at least 2 cm thick.
Step 2 — Plane or sand the printing surface dead flat. Any unevenness means some areas will not contact the paper and will not print. Test flatness by laying a straight edge across the surface — no gaps larger than a hair should be visible.
Step 3 — Write or draw your design on paper, then flip the paper face-down onto the block surface. Rub the back firmly to transfer a faint mirror image of the design to the wood. Alternatively, write directly onto the block in mirror image (harder but eliminates the transfer step).
Tip
If you wet the wood surface slightly and use carbon ink on your design paper, the transfer will be clearer. You can also rub the back of the paper with a smooth stone to improve transfer.
Carving the Block
Step 4 — Using a sharp knife, outline every line of text or image by cutting along both sides of the line at a slight angle (V-cut). Cut to a depth of about 3-5 mm. These outline cuts define the edges of the printing surface.
Step 5 — Remove the wood between the outlines using a gouge or chisel. Clear away all wood that should NOT print to a depth of at least 3-5 mm below the printing surface. Be careful near the edges of letters and lines — one slip removes a part of the printing surface that cannot easily be restored.
Step 6 — For large empty areas, carve deeper (5-8 mm) to ensure they do not accidentally contact the paper.
Step 7 — Inspect the block. Every letter and line that should print must stand raised above the surrounding carved surface. Feel with your fingertip — the printing surface should feel like a plateau with valleys around it.
Printing from the Block
Step 8 — Apply ink to the block. Use a leather dabber (a mushroom-shaped pad of leather stuffed with wool or cloth) or a cloth pad. Dab the pad into ink, then dab it evenly across the block surface. You want a thin, uniform coat — too much ink fills in small details and makes blurry prints. Too little ink produces faint, patchy prints.
Step 9 — Lay a sheet of paper carefully on the inked block. Align it before it contacts the ink — once the paper touches ink, repositioning will smear the print.
Step 10 — Apply pressure. Without a press, use one of these methods:
- Hand burnishing: Rub the back of the paper firmly and evenly with a smooth, hard object — a polished stone, the back of a wooden spoon, a round piece of bone. Apply steady, even pressure across the entire surface. This works well for blocks up to about 20 x 30 cm.
- Foot press: Place the paper-on-block assembly on the floor, cover with a flat board, and stand on it. Your body weight provides surprisingly even pressure.
- Weight stack: Place heavy stones or other weights on a flat board on top of the paper. Leave for 30-60 seconds.
Step 11 — Peel the paper from the block, starting at one corner. Lift slowly and evenly to avoid smearing.
Step 12 — Hang or lay the print flat to dry. Oil-based ink takes 12-24 hours to dry fully. Do not stack wet prints — they will offset (transfer ink to the back of the sheet above).
Yield and Speed
A well-carved woodblock can produce hundreds of prints before wearing down. An experienced printer can produce 20-40 sheets per hour by hand burnishing. With a press (Method 3), speed increases to 100-200 sheets per hour.
Method 2: Movable Type Casting
Movable type is the greatest advance in printing technology. Instead of carving an entire page as one block, you cast individual letters and assemble them into words and sentences. When the print run is done, you break the type apart and reuse the letters for the next page.
This is harder to set up than woodblock printing, but once your letter set is built, you can “write” any page in minutes instead of hours of carving.
Building a Type Mold
The type mold is a small form that shapes molten metal into an individual letter. You need a mold that produces letters that are:
- All exactly the same height (so they all contact the paper evenly)
- The correct width for each letter (M is wider than I)
- Perfectly rectangular in cross-section (so they pack tightly together)
Simple wooden mold method:
Step 1 — Carve a master letter. Take a small piece of hardwood (about 1 x 1 x 3 cm) and carve the letter shape into one end in relief (raised, mirror-image). This is your punch. Use a knife and fine chisel. The letter must be carved in reverse (mirror image) — when cast, the type will be reversed again, producing a normal-reading print.
Step 2 — Build the mold body. Take two flat pieces of hardwood, each about 5 x 3 cm and 1 cm thick. Clamp them together with one edge aligned. Between them, leave a gap equal to the desired width of the letter being cast. This gap forms the mold cavity.
Step 3 — Press the punch into a piece of soft clay, soapstone, or lead to create a matrix — a negative impression of the letter. This matrix goes at the bottom of your mold cavity. When molten metal is poured in, the metal fills the cavity and takes the shape of the letter from the matrix.
Step 4 — Assemble: the two wooden sides clamped together with the matrix at the bottom form a channel. Molten metal poured from the top fills the channel and takes the letter shape from the matrix.
Tip
Traditional type molds were made of metal (copper and steel). A wooden mold works for lead or lead-tin alloy but will char and degrade after 50-100 castings. If you have metalworking capability, build a metal mold for durability.
Casting Type
Step 5 — Melt your type metal. Lead melts at 327 degrees Celsius. A lead-tin alloy melts at a lower temperature (around 183-250 degrees Celsius depending on the ratio). Use a small crucible over a charcoal forge or fire. The metal is ready when it flows freely like water.
Warning
Lead is toxic. Work outdoors or in a very well-ventilated area. Do not eat, drink, or touch your face while handling lead. Wash hands thoroughly after every session. Keep lead work away from food preparation areas and water sources. Use tongs, never bare hands, to handle hot or warm type pieces.
Step 6 — Pour molten metal into the mold cavity slowly and steadily. Fill to the top. The metal will solidify in seconds to minutes depending on mass and ambient temperature.
Step 7 — Open the mold and remove the cast letter. Use a file to clean up any rough edges (called “flash”) and ensure the base is perfectly flat so the type stands upright.
Step 8 — Repeat for every letter of the alphabet (upper and lower case), digits (0-9), and punctuation marks. You need multiple copies of common letters:
| Letter | Suggested Quantity |
|---|---|
| E, T, A, O, I, N, S, R | 15-20 each |
| H, L, D, C, U, M | 10-12 each |
| F, G, P, W, Y, B | 8-10 each |
| V, K, J, X, Q, Z | 4-6 each |
| Space (blank block) | 30-40 |
| Period, comma | 10-15 each |
| Digits 0-9 | 5-8 each |
A complete working font requires approximately 300-500 individual type pieces. This is a significant upfront investment — plan for several days of casting and finishing work.
Typesetting
Step 9 — Build a composing stick: a flat tray with an adjustable end-stop that holds one line of type at a time. A simple version is a wooden channel the height of your type, about 15-20 cm long, with a sliding block at one end.
Step 10 — Set type one letter at a time, left to right (but remember: the type reads right-to-left in the stick because it is mirror-image). Place blank spacer blocks between words.
Step 11 — When a line is complete, slide it onto a flat board (the galley). Repeat for each line. When a full page is assembled, tie the type tightly together with cord or clamp it in a frame (called a chase).
Step 12 — The assembled type is now a printing plate. Ink and print exactly as with woodblock printing (Method 1, Steps 8-12) — or better, use a press (Method 3).
After Printing
Step 13 — After your print run is complete, clean the ink from the type immediately. Use a rag dampened with oil, then a dry rag. Oil-based ink left on type hardens and fills in fine details.
Step 14 — Distribute the type back into the type case (a compartmented box with a section for each letter). Store type in a dry location — lead corrodes slowly in damp conditions.
Method 3: Building a Screw Press
A printing press applies uniform pressure across the entire surface of the paper and type in one action. This produces better quality prints, faster, with less effort than hand burnishing.
The screw press was used for wine and olive oil before Gutenberg adapted it for printing. The design is simple: a screw drives a flat plate downward onto the paper and type.
Frame Construction
Step 1 — Build two vertical posts (uprights) from heavy timber: at least 10 x 10 cm cross-section, 120-150 cm tall. These are the structural backbone of the press.
Step 2 — Connect the posts at the top with a heavy crossbeam (head): at least 10 x 15 cm cross-section, long enough to span the posts plus 5 cm overhang on each side. Join with mortise-and-tenon joints, through-bolts, or heavy pegs. This crossbeam must be extremely strong — it bears the full pressing force.
Step 3 — Bore a hole through the center of the crossbeam large enough for your screw to pass through. If using a wooden screw, the hole should be threaded to match. If using a salvaged metal bolt, you need a matching nut fixed to the crossbeam (or a threaded metal plate bolted to the beam).
Step 4 — Connect the posts at the bottom with a base frame, creating a rigid rectangular structure. The base must be perfectly level.
The Screw and Platen
Step 5 — Obtain or make a screw.
Salvaged: A large bolt (2 cm diameter minimum, 30+ cm long) with a nut is ideal. Salvage from heavy machinery, agricultural equipment, or construction hardware. A car jack screw works excellently.
Handmade wood screw: Select a straight-grained hardwood dowel at least 5 cm in diameter and 40-50 cm long. Carve threads by wrapping a strip of paper in a spiral around the dowel (as a guide) and cutting a continuous groove following the spiral. The pitch (distance between threads) should be about 8-10 mm. This is painstaking work — allow a full day. Carve a matching nut from a separate hardwood block.
Step 6 — Attach a handle to the top of the screw for turning: a wooden bar through a hole in the screw head, about 40-60 cm long. The longer the handle, the more mechanical advantage and pressing force.
Step 7 — Attach the platen (pressing plate) to the bottom of the screw. This is a flat, smooth board (hardwood or stone) about 30 x 40 cm. It must be perfectly flat — any unevenness produces uneven prints. Attach it so it can rotate slightly on the screw without transferring the rotation to the paper (a simple solution: a flat plate resting on the screw end with a pin that lets the platen sit but not spin).
The Bed and Coffin
Step 8 — Build the press bed: a flat, level surface at the base of the frame where the type and paper sit during printing. It must be perfectly flat and at the right height that the platen can reach it when the screw is turned down.
Step 9 — Build a sliding tray (coffin) that sits on the bed and can be slid out from under the platen for inking and paper placement. This is simply a flat board on rails that slides in and out. Without it, you must reach under the platen to place paper — awkward and risky.
Using the Press
Step 10 — Place your type (in its frame) on the coffin. Ink the type evenly using a leather dabber or roller.
Step 11 — Lay paper carefully on the inked type. A sheet of soft felt or blanket (tympan) placed over the paper helps distribute pressure evenly.
Step 12 — Slide the coffin under the platen.
Step 13 — Turn the screw handle to lower the platen onto the paper, type, and bed. Apply firm, steady pressure — about a quarter to half turn past first contact. Do not over-tighten; excessive pressure squashes the type into the paper and produces blurred, heavy prints.
Step 14 — Reverse the screw to raise the platen. Slide the coffin out. Peel the paper from the type.
Step 15 — Repeat. Re-ink every 1-3 prints depending on ink coverage. A skilled operator can produce 100-200 prints per hour.
Press Specifications Summary
| Component | Minimum Dimensions | Material |
|---|---|---|
| Uprights | 10 x 10 cm, 120 cm tall | Hardwood or heavy timber |
| Crossbeam | 10 x 15 cm, 60-80 cm long | Strongest available wood |
| Screw | 2 cm diameter minimum, 30 cm length | Metal (preferred) or hardwood |
| Platen | 30 x 40 cm, perfectly flat | Hardwood or stone |
| Bed | 30 x 40 cm, perfectly level | Hardwood or stone |
| Handle | 40-60 cm long | Hardwood |
Binding Printed Pages
Printed sheets need to be assembled into books. The process is similar to the pamphlet stitch described in Writing & Record Keeping, but scaled up for larger books.
Multi-Signature Binding
Step 1 — Print pages with correct imposition: arrange pages so that when a large sheet is printed on both sides and folded, the pages end up in the correct reading order. For a sheet folded once (folio), print pages 1 and 4 on one side, pages 2 and 3 on the other.
Step 2 — Fold printed sheets into signatures of 4-6 sheets each (16-24 pages per signature).
Step 3 — Stack signatures in page order.
Step 4 — Punch 4-5 sewing holes along the spine of each signature, evenly spaced.
Step 5 — Sew signatures together using a supported sewing method: stretch 3-4 horizontal cords or leather strips across a simple sewing frame. Sew each signature to the cords, linking it to the previous signature at each cord position.
Step 6 — Glue the spine with hide glue, flour paste, or tree resin.
Step 7 — Attach cover boards (wood, heavy cardboard, or leather-wrapped boards) by lacing the cord ends through holes in the boards.
Step 8 — Cover with leather, heavy cloth, or bark paper if desired.
Common Mistakes
| Mistake | Why It’s Dangerous | What to Do Instead |
|---|---|---|
| Forgetting to carve/set text in mirror image | Entire page prints backwards — unusable, all work wasted | Always reverse text. Test with a small print before committing to a full run |
| Ink too thin (watery) | Bleeds under pressure, produces blurred, smeared text | Use oil-based printing ink, not writing ink. Ink should be thick and tacky |
| Ink too thick | Does not transfer evenly, fills in small letter openings | Add a few drops of raw linseed oil and re-mix until tacky but spreadable |
| Uneven pressure during printing | Some areas print dark, others faint or blank | Use a press, or burnish systematically in overlapping strokes. Check the platen is flat |
| Type pieces of different heights | Taller pieces print, shorter pieces do not contact paper | File all type to exactly the same height. Use a flat surface to check — lay type face-down and all bases should be level |
| Carving too shallow on woodblocks | Background areas touch paper and print as unwanted marks | Carve background at least 3-5 mm below the printing surface |
| Overheating linseed oil (fire risk) | Oil fire, severe burns, loss of materials | Heat slowly over low coals. Keep a lid ready. Never use water on oil fires |
| Handling lead type without washing hands | Lead poisoning — cumulative, permanent neurological damage | Always wash hands after handling type. Never eat near the workshop. Work in ventilated areas |
| Not cleaning type after printing | Ink hardens in letter details, ruining the type | Clean immediately after each session with oil-dampened rags |
| Stacking wet prints | Ink offsets between sheets, ruining both | Hang or lay flat individually to dry for 12-24 hours before stacking |
What’s Next
With printing capability, your community can:
- Education — produce textbooks, primers, and reference materials for schools
- Multiply critical documents: medical guides, agricultural calendars, legal codes, engineering references
- Trade printed materials with other communities — printed books become valuable trade goods
Quick Reference Card
Printing -- At a Glance
Printing Ink Recipe: Cooked linseed oil (simmered 2-4 hrs until honey-thick) + 3-4 tbsp lampblack per cup of oil. Mix on flat stone 10-15 min until uniformly thick and tacky.
Three Methods:
Method Setup Time Speed Best For Woodblock Hours (per page) 20-40/hr by hand Images, single pages, maps Movable type Days (one-time font casting) then minutes per page 100-200/hr with press Text-heavy documents, books Screw press Days (one-time build) 100-200/hr Any high-volume printing Critical Rule: ALL text must be set in MIRROR IMAGE. Test before every print run.
Type Metal: Lead-tin alloy (or pure lead). Melts at 183-327 C. TOXIC — ventilation and hand-washing mandatory.
Minimum Type Set: ~300-500 pieces. Common letters (E, T, A, O, I, N, S, R) need 15-20 copies each.
Press Force: Firm quarter-turn past first contact. Over-tightening blurs the print.
Ink Drying Time: 12-24 hours. Do not stack until fully dry.
Woodblock Lifespan: Hundreds of prints per block.
Cleaning: Wipe type with oil-dampened rag immediately after printing. Never let ink dry on type.