Paper Making
Why This Matters
Without paper, every piece of knowledge lives only in someone’s memory — and dies when they do. Oral traditions distort over generations. Bark carvings rot. Clay tablets are heavy and fragile. Paper is the technology that makes civilization durable. Maps, medical records, engineering plans, laws, trade agreements, crop rotation schedules, instruction manuals — all of these require a lightweight, portable writing surface that can be produced in bulk. Every major civilization figured out papermaking. Yours must too.
What You Need
For rag paper (from old cloth):
- Old cotton or linen cloth (t-shirts, bed sheets, canvas, denim — any plant-fiber fabric)
- A large pot for boiling
- Water
- Wood ash lye or washing soda (optional, for breaking down fibers faster)
- A blender, mortar and pestle, or two flat rocks for beating pulp
- A mould and deckle (see building instructions below)
- Absorbent cloths or felts (wool blankets, thick cotton towels)
- Two flat boards for pressing
- Heavy weights (rocks, logs, water-filled containers)
For plant fiber paper (from bark, grass, or leaves):
- Inner bark of mulberry, elm, willow, basswood, or paper birch
- OR: long grasses, cattail leaves, iris leaves, corn husks, hemp, flax
- Wood ash lye (for cooking fibers — see Soap Making for how to make lye)
- A large pot
- Same tools as above for pulp processing, mould/deckle, pressing, and drying
For sizing (making paper water-resistant):
- Animal hide glue, gelatin (from boiling bones/hides), or rice starch
- A shallow tray or pot for dipping
Understanding Paper: What It Actually Is
Paper is simply a thin mat of interlocked plant fibers. Every plant cell wall contains cellulose — long, strong chains of molecules that, when separated and suspended in water, bond to each other as they dry. The process is:
- Get fibers — from cloth, bark, or grass
- Break fibers apart — by cutting, beating, and/or cooking in alkali
- Suspend in water — creating a thin slurry called “pulp”
- Catch on a screen — the mould lifts a thin, even layer of fibers from the water
- Press out water — between cloths and boards
- Dry — flat, under tension to prevent warping
That is all paper has ever been, from the Chinese invention in 105 AD to the page this might someday be printed on.
Building a Mould and Deckle
The mould and deckle is the essential tool — you cannot make paper without one.
The mould is a flat wooden frame with a screen stretched across it. The screen catches fibers as you scoop pulp from the water.
The deckle is a second frame, the same size, that sits on top of the mould. It acts as a border that contains the pulp and defines the edges of your paper sheet.
Construction
Step 1 — Build two identical rectangular frames. Use straight, lightweight wood. A good starting size is 20 cm x 30 cm (roughly A4 paper size). Each frame is made from four strips of wood about 2 cm x 2 cm in cross-section, joined at the corners with pegs, nails, lashing, or mortise-and-tenon joints. The frames must be flat and sturdy — any warping will produce uneven paper.
Step 2 — Attach a screen to ONE frame (the mould). Stretch a fine mesh over one side of the frame and secure it with small nails or by wrapping it around and tacking it to the back. Suitable screens include:
- Window screen mesh (if scavenged)
- Woven fabric with a very open weave (cheesecloth, muslin)
- A grid of thin bamboo strips or reeds laid side by side with thread connecting them (this is the traditional Asian method)
- Fine wire mesh
The screen must be taut — any sag will create thick spots in your paper. If using fabric, stretch it wet and let it dry on the frame (it shrinks and tightens).
Step 3 — Leave the second frame (the deckle) as an open frame. No screen. It simply sits on top of the mould to contain the pulp.
Tip
Make several moulds in different sizes. A small one (15 x 20 cm) is good for practice and notes. A larger one (25 x 35 cm) is better for maps and records. Two moulds of the same size let you work faster — form a sheet on one while the other dries.
Method 1: Rag Paper (From Old Cloth)
Rag paper is the highest quality you can make. It is strong, smooth, and long-lasting — rag paper from the 1400s is still readable today. Any fabric made from plant fibers works: cotton, linen, hemp, ramie. Do NOT use synthetic fabrics (polyester, nylon) — they will not bond.
Step 1 — Prepare the rags. Cut or tear fabric into small pieces, roughly 2-3 cm square. Remove buttons, zippers, seams, and any synthetic components. The smaller the pieces, the faster they break down.
Step 2 — Cook the fibers (optional but recommended). Place the rag pieces in a large pot, cover with water, and add a handful of wood ash or a cup of lye water. Bring to a boil and simmer for 2-4 hours, stirring occasionally. This breaks down the fibers and removes dyes, oils, and other non-cellulose materials. The liquid will turn dark — this is normal. After cooking, drain and rinse the fibers thoroughly in clean water until the water runs relatively clear.
Step 3 — Beat the pulp. This is the most labor-intensive step. The goal is to separate individual fibers from each other until you have a fluffy, porridge-like mass. Methods:
- Mortar and pestle or rocks: Pound the wet fibers on a flat stone with a heavy stone or wooden mallet. Work in small batches. Pound until the fibers separate into a mushy paste — this takes 30-60 minutes per batch.
- Stamping mill (if you have one): A water-powered or foot-powered hammer that pounds fibers in a stone trough. Vastly faster but requires engineering.
- Blender (if you have electricity): 30 seconds on high turns rags into perfect pulp. The ultimate luxury.
You know the pulp is ready when you can take a pinch, drop it into a glass of water, and the fibers spread out into a cloud rather than clumping together.
Step 4 — Prepare the vat. Fill a large tub or basin with water — deep enough to submerge your mould and deckle at an angle. Add the beaten pulp. The ratio is roughly 1 part pulp to 20-30 parts water. Stir well. The water should look like thin, cloudy soup with visible fibers. Too thick = thick, lumpy paper. Too thin = paper that is fragile and full of holes. Adjust by adding water or pulp.
Step 5 — Form a sheet. Place the deckle on top of the mould (screen side up). Hold them together firmly with both hands, deckle on top. Submerge the mould and deckle into the pulp vat at roughly a 45-degree angle, then level them out while still underwater. Lift straight up, smoothly, letting water drain through the screen. As the water drains, give the mould a gentle side-to-side and front-to-back shake — this interlocks the fibers and makes stronger paper. Stop shaking once the water has mostly drained through (about 10-15 seconds).
Step 6 — Couch (transfer) the sheet. Remove the deckle. You now have a thin, wet sheet of paper on the screen. Place one edge of the mould against a damp felt or thick cloth (a wool blanket works well) laid on a flat surface. In one smooth motion, roll the mould face-down onto the felt so the wet paper contacts the felt. Press gently on the back of the screen, then lift the mould away. The paper should remain on the felt. This takes practice — your first attempts may tear or stick to the screen. If it sticks, the pulp was too thin or the screen is too coarse.
Step 7 — Stack and press. Place another felt on top of the sheet. Form another sheet and couch it on top. Continue stacking: felt, paper, felt, paper. When you have a stack of 10-20 sheets (called a “post”), place flat boards on the top and bottom of the stack. Apply heavy, even pressure — pile on rocks (50-100 kg total), use a clamp, or stand on the boards. Press for 2-4 hours. This squeezes out most of the water and flattens the sheets.
Step 8 — Dry. Carefully peel the pressed sheets off the felts. Lay them flat on a clean surface in a warm, dry area with air circulation. You can also hang them on a clothesline, clip them to boards, or lay them on screens. Drying takes 12-24 hours depending on humidity and temperature. Do NOT dry in direct sunlight — this warps and yellows the paper. Weigh down the edges if needed to prevent curling.
Method 2: Plant Fiber Paper (From Bark or Grass)
If you have no cloth to spare, you can make paper from raw plant fibers. The quality is rougher but perfectly usable for writing, wrapping, and record keeping.
Best Fiber Sources
| Source | Fiber Quality | Availability | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Mulberry inner bark | Excellent | Subtropical/temperate | Traditional Asian paper (washi) |
| Hemp/flax stalks | Excellent | Must be cultivated | Long, strong fibers |
| Cotton linters | Excellent | Warm climates | Short fibers from cotton seeds |
| Basswood/linden inner bark | Good | Temperate forests | Easy to peel in spring |
| Willow inner bark | Good | Near waterways | Flexible, pale fibers |
| Cattail leaves | Fair | Wetlands | Abundant, somewhat brittle |
| Corn husks | Fair | Farmland | Seasonal, short fibers |
| Tall grass (bluegrass, orchard grass) | Fair | Meadows | Abundant but short fibers |
| Stinging nettle stalks | Good | Temperate areas | Long bast fibers similar to flax |
Step 1 — Harvest and prepare. For bark: cut branches or small trunks in spring when the sap is flowing (bark peels easiest in spring). Strip the outer bark and discard. Peel off the inner bark (the pale, fibrous layer between outer bark and wood). For grasses and leaves: harvest mature plants, cut into 5-10 cm lengths.
Step 2 — Cook in alkali. This step is NOT optional for plant fibers (unlike rag paper, where it is optional). Raw plant material contains lignin, hemicellulose, pectins, and other substances that prevent good paper formation. Cook the chopped fibers in a strong lye solution:
- Fill a pot with the chopped plant material.
- Cover with water and add lye water (enough that the water feels slippery between your fingers — roughly 1 cup of concentrated lye per 2 liters of water).
- Bring to a boil and simmer for 3-6 hours, stirring occasionally. The fibers should soften dramatically and the liquid will turn dark brown.
- Test: take a piece of fiber out, rinse it, and try to pull it apart. If it separates easily into thin strands, it is ready. If it is still tough, cook longer.
Step 3 — Rinse. Drain the lye water (do NOT dump it near your garden — it is highly alkaline). Rinse the fibers thoroughly in clean water, changing the water 3-4 times until it runs clear and no longer feels slippery.
Step 4 — Beat. Same as rag paper — pound the cooked fibers with a stone, mallet, or mortar and pestle until they form a smooth pulp. Plant fibers generally need more beating than rags.
Step 5 — Form, couch, press, and dry. Follow Steps 4-8 from Method 1 above. Plant fiber paper tends to be more textured and slightly thicker than rag paper, which is normal.
Sizing: Making Paper Water-Resistant
Unsized paper is like a blotter — ink will bleed and spread, and water will dissolve it. Sizing fills the tiny gaps between fibers with a thin layer of protein or starch, making the paper resistant to liquids.
Gelatin Sizing (Best for Writing Paper)
Step 1 — Make gelatin by simmering animal bones, skin scraps, or hooves in water for several hours until the liquid is thick and sticky when cool. Strain out the solids. You want a solution roughly the consistency of thin syrup when warm.
Step 2 — Dilute the gelatin with warm water: roughly 1 part gelatin to 10 parts water. The solution should feel slightly slippery but not gloppy.
Step 3 — Dip each dried paper sheet into the warm gelatin solution, holding it by one edge. Let excess drip off. Lay flat to dry or hang on a line. One dip is usually sufficient. Two dips makes the paper very water-resistant.
Starch Sizing (Alternative)
Step 1 — Cook rice, wheat flour, or potato starch in water until it forms a thin, runny paste. Strain out any lumps.
Step 2 — Dilute to roughly the consistency of thin milk.
Step 3 — Dip or brush the starch solution onto dried paper. Lay flat to dry.
Starch sizing is less durable than gelatin but easier to make. It works well for paper that will be used with ink but not exposed to moisture.
Improving Paper Quality
- Smoother surface: After drying, press sheets between two smooth boards under heavy weight for 24 hours. For very smooth paper, rub the surface with a smooth river stone, bone, or the bottom of a glass bottle (burnishing).
- Whiter paper: Add a small amount of calcium carbonate (ground chalk or limestone) to the pulp vat. Or bleach dried sheets by laying them in sunlight on clean grass for several days (sun bleaching).
- Stronger paper: Beat the pulp longer. Well-beaten fibers interlock more thoroughly, producing stronger sheets. Adding a small portion of long fibers (flax, hemp) to the mix also increases strength.
- Thinner paper: Dilute the pulp further in the vat. Use less vigorous shaking when forming sheets.
- Consistent thickness: Stir the vat thoroughly before each sheet. Fibers settle quickly — stir every time.
Common Mistakes
| Mistake | Why It’s Dangerous | What to Do Instead |
|---|---|---|
| Using synthetic fabric (polyester, nylon) | Synthetic fibers do not bond to each other; the sheet will fall apart when dry | Use ONLY plant-based fabrics: cotton, linen, hemp, ramie |
| Not beating the pulp enough | Fibers remain clumped; paper is lumpy, weak, and tears easily | Beat until a pinch of fibers disperses into a cloud in water |
| Making pulp too thick in the vat | Sheets come out thick, uneven, and heavy | Start thin (1:30 ratio) and add pulp gradually |
| Lifting the mould too fast | Water runs off unevenly, creating thin spots and holes | Lift smoothly and steadily; shake gently while draining |
| Drying in direct hot sun | Paper warps, curls, becomes brittle, and yellows | Dry in shade with good airflow, or indoors |
| Skipping the lye cook for plant fibers | Lignin remains in the fibers, making paper dark, brittle, and prone to yellowing and decomposing | Always cook plant fibers in alkali for 3-6 hours |
| Using hard or mineral-heavy water | Minerals interfere with fiber bonding and leave deposits | Use rainwater or soft water for the vat |
| Not pressing firmly enough | Paper dries warped and wrinkled, fibers do not bond well | Use at least 50 kg of weight; more is better |
What’s Next
Once you can make paper, move on to:
- Writing & Record Keeping — now you need ink and a system for recording information
- Printing — duplicate documents efficiently using block printing or a press
- Natural Dyes & Inks — make the inks and pigments to write on your paper
Quick Reference Card
Paper Making — At a Glance
The Basic Process: Fiber + Water + Screen = Paper
Key Steps:
- Get fibers (old cloth OR bark/grass cooked in lye)
- Beat into pulp (30-60 minutes by hand)
- Suspend in water (1:20-30 ratio in vat)
- Scoop with mould and deckle, shake gently
- Transfer to felt, stack, press (50-100 kg, 2-4 hours)
- Dry flat in shade (12-24 hours)
- Size with gelatin or starch for writing paper
Fiber Source Prep Required Paper Quality Best For Cotton/linen rags Minimal (cut, optional cook) Excellent Writing, records Mulberry bark Cook in lye 3-6 hours Excellent Fine paper Hemp/flax stalks Cook in lye 3-6 hours Very good Strong paper Grass/cattail Cook in lye 3-6 hours Fair Rough paper, wrapping Most common failure: Not beating the pulp enough. If paper is lumpy, beat longer.